The Origins of
Language
Dr.
C. George Boeree
It is an intriguing question, to
which we may never have a complete answer: How did we get from animal
vocalization (barks, howls, calls...) to human language?
Animals often make use of signs,
which point to what they represent, but they don’t use symbols, which
are arbitrary and conventional. Examples of signs include sniffles as a
sign of an on-coming cold, clouds as a sign of rain, or a scent as a sign of
territory. Symbols include things like the words we use. Dog,
Hund, chien, cane, perro -- these are symbols that refer to the creature so
named, yet each one contains nothing in it that in anyway indicates that
creature.
In addition, language is a system
of symbols, with several levels of organization, at least phonetics (the
sounds), syntax (the grammar), and semantics (the meanings).
So when did language begin? At
the very beginnings of the genus Homo, perhaps 4 or 5 million years ago?
Or with the advent of modern man, Cro-magnon, some 125,000 years ago? Did
the neanderthal speak? He had a brain that was larger than ours, but his
voice box seems to be higher in his throat, like that of the apes. We
don’t know.
There are many theories about the
origins of language. Many of these have traditional amusing names
(invented by Max Müller and George Romanes a century ago), and I will create a
couple more where needed.
1. The mama theory.
Language began with the easiest syllables attached to the most significant
objects.
2. The ta-ta theory.
Sir Richard Paget, influenced by Darwin, believed that body movement preceded
language. Language began as an unconscious vocal imitation of these
movements -- like the way a child’s mouth will move when they use scissors, or
my tongue sticks out when I try to play the guitar. This evolved into the
popular idea that language may have derived from gestures.
3. The bow-wow theory.
Language began as imitations of natural sounds -- moo, choo-choo, crash, clang,
buzz, bang, meow... This is more technically refered to as onomatopoeia
or echoism.
4. The pooh-pooh theory.
Language began with interjections, instinctive emotive cries such as oh! for
surprise and ouch! for pain.
5. The ding-dong theory.
Some people, including the famous linguist Max Muller, have pointed out that
there is a rather mysterious correspondence between sounds and meanings.
Small, sharp, high things tend to have words with high front vowels in many
languages, while big, round, low things tend to have round back vowels!
Compare itsy bitsy teeny weeny with moon, for example. This is often
referred to as sound symbolism.
6. The yo-he-ho theory.
Language began as rhythmic chants, perhaps ultimately from the grunts of heavy
work (heave-ho!). The linguist A. S. Diamond suggests that these were
perhaps calls for assistance or cooperation accompanied by appropriate
gestures. This may relate yo-he-ho to the ding-dong theory, as in such
words as cut, break, crush, strike...
7. The sing-song theory.
Danish linguist Jesperson suggested that language comes out of play, laughter,
cooing, courtship, emotional mutterings and the like. He even suggests
that, contrary to other theories, perhaps some of our first words were actually
long and musical, rather than the short grunts many assume we started with.
8. The hey you! theory.
A linguist by the name of Revesz suggested that we have always needed
interpersonal contact, and that language began as sounds to signal both
identity (here I am!) and belonging (I’m with you!). We may also cry out
in fear, anger, or hurt (help me!). This is more commonly called the
contact theory.
9. The hocus pocus theory.
My own contribution to these is the idea that language may have had some roots
in a sort of magical or religious aspect of our ancestors' lives. Perhaps
we began by calling out to game animals with magical sounds, which became their
names.
10. The eureka! theory.
And finally, perhaps language was consciously invented. Perhaps some
ancestor had the idea of assigning arbitrary sounds to mean certain
things. Clearly, once the idea was had, it would catch on like wild-fire!
Another issue is how often language
came into being (or was invented). Perhaps it was invented once, by our
earliest ancestors -- perhaps the first who had whatever genetic and
physiological properties needed to make complex sounds and organize them into
strings. This is called monogenesis. Or perhaps it was
invented many times -- polygenesis -- by many people.
We can try to reconstruct earlier
forms of language, but we can only go so far before cycles of change obliterate
any possibility of reconstruction. Many say we can only go back perhaps
10,000 years before the trail goes cold. So perhaps we will simply never
know.
Perhaps the biggest debate among linguists
and others interested in the origins of language is whether we can account for
language using only the basic mechanisms of learning, or if we need to
postulate some special built-in language-readiness. The learning-only
people (for example, B. F. Skinner) say that childhood conditioning, or maybe
modeling, can account for the complexity of language. The
language-acquisition-device (LAD) people (such as Chomsky and Pinker)
say that the ease and speed with which children learn language requires something
more.
The debate is real only for those
people who prefer to take one or the other of these extreme views. It
seems very clear to most that neither is the answer. Is there some
special neural mechanism for language? Not in the sense of a LAD.
In most mammals, both hemispheres
looked very much alike. Somewhere in humanity's early years, a few people
possibly inherited a mutation that left one hemisphere with a limited
capacity. Instead of neural connections going in every direction, they
tended to be organized more linearly. The left hemisphere couldn't related to
things in the usual full-blown multidimensional way. But -- surprise! --
that same diminished capacity proved to be very good are ordering things
linearly. And that's exactly what language needs: The ability to
convert fully dimensional events into linear sequences of sounds, and vice
versa.
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Literary Criticism
Literary
criticism is a view or opinion on what a particular written work means. It is
about the meanings that a reader finds in an author's literature.Literary
criticism is an attempt to evaluate and understand the creative writing, the
literature of an author. Literature includes plays, essays, novels, poetry, and
short stories. Literary criticism is a description, analysis, evaluation, or
interpretation of a particular literary work or an author's writings as a
whole. Literary criticism is usually expressed in the form of a critical essay.
In-depth book reviews are also sometimes viewed as literary criticism.Literary
criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern
literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the
philosophical discussion of its methods and goals. Though the two activities
are closely related, literary critics are not always, and have not always been,
theorists.
Approaches to Literary Criticism:
Traditional
Though
perhaps Edwardian in style, this approach — essentially one of trying to
broaden understanding and appreciation — is still used in general surveys of
English literature. There is usually some information on the writer and his
times, and a little illustration, but no close analysis of the individual work
or its aims.
New
Criticism
The
poem (the approach works best for poetry, and especially the lyric) is detached
from its biographical or historical context, and analyzed thoroughly: diction,
imagery, meanings, particularly complexities of meaning. Some explanation of
unfamiliar words and/or uses may be allowed, but the poem is otherwise expected
to stand on its own feet, as though it were a contemporary production.
Reader’s-Response
Reader-response
criticism is a school of literary theory that focuses on the reader (or
"audience") and his or her experience of a literary work, in contrast
to other schools and theories that focus attention primarily on the author or
the content and form of the work.Reader-response theory recognizes the reader
as an active agent who imparts "real existence" to the work and
completes its meaning through interpretation. Reader-response criticism argues
that literature should be viewed as a performing art in which each reader
creates his or her own, possibly unique, text-related performance.
Rhetorical
Rhetoric
is the art of persuasion, and the rhetorical approach attempts to understand
how the content of the poem, which is more than intellectual meaning, is put
across. How arguments are presented, attitudes struck, evidence marshalled,
various appeals made to the reader — all are relevant.
Stylistic
Style
is the manner in which something is presented, and this approach concentrates
on the peculiarities of diction and imagery employed, sometimes relating them
to literary and social theory.
Jungian
Jungians
search for recurring poetic images, symbols and situations in poems, but their
aim is not to categorize poems as Northrop Frye does but to relate them to
larger patterns in society, whether native peoples or high civilizations.
Historical
Poems
are placed in their historical context — to explain not only their allusions
and particular use of words, but the conventions and expectations of the times.
The approach may be evaluative (i.e. the critic may suggest ways of responding
to the poem once the perspective is corrected), or may simply use it as
historical data.
Biographical
As
with the historical approach, a poem may be used to illuminate the writer's
psychology, or as biographic data. No less than the correspondence, remembered
conversations, choice of reading matter, the poem is analyzed for relevance to
its author.
Sociological
Here
the focus is on society as a whole, and critics assess the social factors at
work in a poem, which may be everything from the attitudes a writer inherits
from his social background to the markets which supported his literary efforts.
Political
It
may be the political movements the poet supported which interest the critic,
but more commonly the poem is assessed on political lines: how fairly or
effectively it promotes political action or attitudes.
Moralist
Many
poets have strong ethical or religious convictions, but the moralist critic
usually has a broader interest. Literature has a humanizing or civilizing
mission, and the critic values work which furthers that end: promotes
tolerance, social justice, sensitivity to individual wishes and talents, etc.
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LITERATURE
I. LITERATURE is/are writing/s in which expression and
form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest, are
characteristic or essential features, as poetry, novels, history, biography,
and essays. It is also the entire body of writings of a specific language, period, people, etc.
There are 2 Main Divisions of
Literature:
A. PROSE- Prose is the most typical form of
language, applying ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech
rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry). While there are
critical debates on the construction of prose, its simplicity and loosely
defined structure has led to its adoption for the majority of spoken dialogue,
factual discourse as well as topical and fictional writing. It is commonly
used, for example, in literature, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias,
broadcasting, film, history, philosophy, law and many other forms of
communication.
Different Subdivisions
of Prose:
1. Novel is a book of long narrative in
literary prose. The genre has historical roots both in the fields of the
medieval and early modern romance and in the tradition of the novella. The
latter supplied the present generic term in the late 18th century.
Elements:
Setting, Character, Theme, Conflict
2. Essay is a piece of writing which is often
written from an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a number
of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned
arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the
author.
Elements:
Focus, Content &
Organization
3. Short story is a work of fiction that is usually
written in prose, often in narrative format. A short story usually deals with a
few characters and often concentrates on the creation of the mood rather than
the plot.
Elements: Plot, Character, Setting, Theme & Style
4. Fable is a literary genre. A fable is a
succinct fictional story, in prose or verse, that features animals, mythical creatures,
plants, inanimate objects or forces of nature which are anthropomorphized
(given human qualities such as verbal communication), and that illustrates or
leads to an interpretation of a moral lesson (a "moral"), which may
at the end be added explicitly in a pithy maxim.
5. Mythology can refer either to the study of
myths or to a body or collection of myths. In folkloristics, a myth is a sacred
narrative usually explaining how the world or humankind came to be in its
present form, although, in a very broad sense, the word can refer to any
traditional story. Myths typically involve supernatural characters and are
endorsed by rulers or priests.
6. Legend is a narrative of human actions that
are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history
and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude. Legend, for
its active and passive participants includes no happenings that are outside the
realm of "possibility", defined by a highly flexible set of
parameters, which may include miracles that are perceived as actually having
happened, within the specific tradition of indoctrination where the legend
arises, and within which it may be transformed over time, in order to keep it
fresh and vital, and realistic. A majority of legends operate within the realm
of uncertainty, never being entirely believed by the participants, but also
never being resolutely doubted.
7. Fairy tale is a type of short story that
typically features folkloric fantasy characters, such as fairies, goblins,
elves, trolls, dwarves, giants, mermaids, or gnomes, and usually magic or
enchantments. However, only a small number of the stories refer to fairies. The
stories may nonetheless be distinguished from other folk narratives such as
legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events
described) and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables.
8. Drama is often combined with music and
dance: the drama in opera is generally sung throughout; musicals generally
include both spoken dialogue and songs.
Elements: Dialogue, Plot, Theme, Staging &
Characters
B. POETRY- Poetry, from the Greek poets which
means "doer" or "creator," is a catch-all term that is
applied to any form of rhythmical or
metrical composition. While
poetry is considered to be a subset of verse both are rhythmical/metrical. What distinguishes poetry from verse is its
"imaginative quality, intricate structure, serious or lofty subject
matter, or noble purpose." Very much so different from the way we write in
today's modern poetry. The description above is the true divisions of poetry,
the poetry from England. Very beautiful, and very complicated.
Elements of Poetry:
Rhythm: This is the music made by the
statements of the poem, which includes the syllables in the lines. The best
method of understanding this is to read the poem aloud, and understand the
stressed and unstressed syllables. Listen for the sounds and the music made
when we hear the lines spoken aloud. How do the words resonate with each other?
How do the words flow when they are linked with one another? Does sound right?
Do the words fit with each other? These are the things you consider while
studying the rhythm of the poem.
Meter: This is the basic structural make-up
of the poem. Do the syllables match with each other? Every line in the poem
must adhere to this structure. A poem is made up of blocks of lines, which
convey a single strand of thought. Within those blocks, a structure of
syllables which follow the rhythm has to be included. This is the meter or the
metrical form of poetry.
Stanza: Stanza in poetry is defined as a
smaller unit or group of lines or a paragraph in a poem. A particular stanza
has a specific meter, rhyme scheme, etc. Based on the number of lines, stanzas
are named as couplet (2 lines), Tercet (3 lines), Quatrain (4 lines), Cinquain
(5 lines), Sestet (6 lines), Septet (7 lines), Octave (8 lines).
Rhyme: A poem may or may not have a rhyme.
When you write poetry that has rhyme, it means that the last words or sounds of
the lines match with each other in some form. Rhyme is basically similar
sounding words like 'cat' and 'hat', 'close' and 'shows', 'house' and 'mouse',
etc. Free verse poetry, though, does not follow this system.
Rhyme Scheme: As a continuation of rhyme, the rhyme
scheme is also one of the basic elements of poetry. In simple words, it is
defined as the pattern of rhyme. Either the last words of the first and second
lines rhyme with each other, or the first and the third, second and the fourth
and so on. It is denoted by alphabets like aabb (1st line rhyming with 2nd, 3rd
with 4th); abab (1st with 3rd, 2nd with 4th); abba (1st with 4th, 2nd with
3rd), etc.
Alliteration: This is also used in several poems
for sound effect. Several words in the sentence may begin with the same
alphabet or syllable sound. For example, in the sentence "Many minute
miniature moments," the sound of the alphabet 'M' (phonetic sound /m/) is
repeated in all the four words continuously. When you say those words aloud,
the sound effect generated is called Alliteration.
Simile: A simile is a method of comparison
using the words 'like' or 'as'. When, in a poem, something is said to be 'like'
another, it means that the poet is using Simile to convey his feelings by
comparing it to something. For example, in the statement 'Her laughter was like
a babbling brook', the poet is comparing the laughter of the girl to the sound
made by a babbling brook. Note that 'babbling brook' is also an example of
Alliteration.
Metaphor: A metaphor is a method of comparison
where the words 'like' and 'as' are not used. To modify the earlier example, if
the statement had been 'Her laughter, a babbling brook', then it would be the
use of Metaphor.
Theme: This is what the poem is all about.
The theme of the poem is the central idea that the poet wants to convey. It can
be a story, or a thought, or a description of something or someone; anything
that the poem is about.
Symbolism: Often poems will convey ideas and
thoughts using symbols. A symbol can stand for many things at one time and
leads the reader out of a systematic and structured method of looking at
things. Often a symbol used in the poem will be used to create such an effect.
Imagery: Imagery is also one of the important
elements of a poem. This device is used by the poet for readers to create an
image in their imagination. Imagery appeals to all the five senses. For e.g.,
when the poet describes, 'the flower is bright red', an image of a red flower
is immediately created in the reader's mind.
The
elements of poetry are an essential part of the structure of a good poem. Of
course, it does not mean, that all poems must have all these elements. It
depends entirely upon the poet, who has all these tools at his disposal to use
in order to convey his ideas effectively.
Different
Subdivisions of Poetry:
1. Narrative poetry are epics, metrical romances, and
ballads. Epic poetry is stores that are told in verse form and is arranges as a
series of events. Metrical romance poetry is written with romantic element
dealing with love, religion, and chivalry. Ballads are little short narrative
poems, stories, or songs. Most have been handed down through generations.
2. Lyric Poetry includes songs, odes, sonnets, and
elegies. Lyrics often deal with emotions and expressions of the writer's
thoughts and feelings on the subject. The form of lyric is usually short. Most
often lyrics are from true emotions. Ode is addressed to a person or object
usually accompanied by music. Songs usually express the poet/poetess hopes,
fears, joys, sorrows, love, or ideas. They can be religious, personal, or
national. Sonnets are a definate verse form that is originally meant to be sung
and usually accompanied by music. Sonnets have 14 lines and a fixed rhyming
scheme.
3. Dramatic poetry includes drama. It resembles a
one-sided conversation in verse. It tells about the ideas or thoughts of the
speaker. It usually reveals the character of the speaker. In dramatic poetry it
usually presents a story of human life.
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Source: From the Internet
In
the begining there was only chaos. Then out of the void appeared Erebus, the
unknowable place where death dwells, and Night. All else was empty, silent,
endless, darkness. Then somehow Love was born bringing a start of order. From
Love came Light and Day. Once there was Light and Day, Gaea, the earth appeared.
Then Erebus slept with Night, who
gave birth to Ether, the heavenly light, and to Day the earthly light. Then
Night alone produced Doom, Fate, Death, Sleep, Dreams, Nemesis,
and others that come to man out of darkness.
Meanwhile Gaea alone gave birth to Uranus,
the heavens. Uranus became Gaea's mate covering her on all sides. Together they
produced the three Cyclopes,
the three Hecatoncheires,
and twelve Titans.
However, Uranus was a bad father and
husband. He hated the Hecatoncheires. He imprisoned them by pushing them into
the hidden places of the earth, Gaea's womb. This angered Gaea and she ploted
against Uranus. She made a flint sickle and tried to get her children to attack
Uranus. All were too afraid except, the youngest Titan, Cronus.
Gaea and Cronus set up an ambush of
Uranus as he lay with Gaea at night. Cronus grabed his father and castrated
him, with the stone sickle, throwing the severed genitales into the ocean. The
fate of Uranus is not clear. He either died, withdrew from the earth, or exiled
himself to Italy. As he departed he promised that Cronus and the Titans would
be punished. From his spilt blood came the Giants,
the Ash Tree Nymphs,
and the Erinnyes.
From the sea foam where his genitales fell cameAphrodite.
Cronus became the next ruler. He
imprisoned the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires in Tartarus.
He married his sister Rhea,
under his rule the Titans had many offspring. He ruled for many ages. However,
Gaea and Uranus both had prophesied that he would be overthrown by a son. To
avoid this Cronus swallowed each of his children as they were born. Rhea was
angry at the treatment of the children and ploted against Cronus. When it came
time to give birth to her sixth child, Rhea hid herself, then she left the
child to be raised by nymphs. To concel her act she wrapped a stone in
swaddling cloths and passed it off as the baby to Cronus, who swallowed it.
This child was Zeus.
He grew into a handsome youth on Crete. He consulted Metis on
how to defeat Cronus. She prepaired a drink for Cronus design to make him vomit
up the other children. Rhea convinced Cronus to accept his son and Zeus was
allowed to return to Mount Olympus
as Cronus's cupbearer. This gave Zeus the opertunity to slip Cronus the
specially prepaired drink. This worked as planned and the other five children
were vomitted up. Being gods they were unharmed. They were thankful to Zeus and
made him their leader.
Cronus
was yet to be defeated. He and the Titans, except Prometheus, Epimetheus,
and Oceanus,
fought to retain their power. Atlas
became their leader in battle and it looked for some time as though they would
win and put the young gods down. However, Zeus was cunning. He went down to
Tartarus and freed the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires. Prometheus joined Zeus
as well. He returned to battle with his new allies. The Cyclopes provided Zeus
with lighting bolts for weapons. The Hecatoncheires he set in ambush armed with
boulders. With the time right, Zeus retreated drawing the Titans into the
Hecatoncheires's ambush. The Hecatoncheires rained down hundreds of boulders
with such a fury the Titans thought the mountains were falling on them. They
broke and ran giving Zeus victory.
Zeus exiled the Titans who had
fought against him into Tartarus. Except for Atlas, who was singled out for the
special punishment of holding the world on his shoulders.
However, even after this victory
Zeus was not safe. Gaea angry that her children had been imprisoned gave birth
to a last offspring, Typhoeus.
Typhoeus was so fearsome that most of the gods fled. However, Zeus faced the
monster and flinging his lighting bolts was able to kill it. Typhoeus was
burried under Mount Etna in Sicily.
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